Pope
Francis’ most recent encyclical, Laudato
Si’, is a slim but powerful commentary on humanity’s relationship with God
and the environment. Laudato Si’
offers a poignant critique of capitalist society, free-market economies, and
consumerist culture, from a Catholic perspective reminiscent of liberation
theology. In Laudato Si’, Pope
Francis argues for the importance of an ecological approach that seeks to
protect the environment while simultaneously engaging with the needs of human
society[1]. Pope Francis calls this
approach an “integral ecology”[2]. This is an ethically and
theologically based ecology that is centred around the idea of nature as an interconnected
matrix of the living world. For Pope Francis, nature is a part of God’s
creation, and is therefore imbued with God’s love. In Laudato Si’, Pope Francis draws inspiration from the twelfth century
monk Saint Francis of Assisi. Saint Francis’ mystical and environmental
practices play a significant role in Pope Francis’ approach to ecology. Pope
Francis’ use of Saint Francis in furthering the mystical elements of his
encyclical reflects the tremendous power and longevity of the Catholic
tradition. Here I would like to contribute to Pope Francis’ critical
reflections by briefly exploring the possibility of an environmental ethic in
the Rule of Saint Benedict of Nursia. I argue that the more progressive a
religious tradition becomes, the more it necessarily has to reimagine and
reinterpret the traditions and practices of the past in order to face the challenges
of the present moment. I will begin by briefly tracing a sketch of Pope
Francis’ analysis of the relationship between humanity and the environment.
Laudato Si’s
primary goal is to address the present ecological crisis from a Catholic perspective.
Pope Francis’ introductory paragraph underscores this perspective by
introducing the earth from the point of view of Saint Francis. The opening
line, “’Laudato si’, mi’ Signore’ – ‘praise be to you my Lord”[3], is a marvelous invocation
of Saint Francis of Assisi’s classic poem Canticle
of the Creatures. In Pope Francis’ interpretation of Saint Francis of
Assisi, the earth is “like a sister with whom we share our life and a beautiful
mother who opens her arms to embrace us”[4]. In Canticle of the Creatures, Saint Francis sings of the glory of
creation, and embraces the great constellation of the universe as though it
were family: Brother Sun, Sister Moon, Brother Wind, Sister Water, Brother
Fire, and so forth[5].
However, in the second paragraph of Laudato
Si’ Pope Francis contrasts the lovely imagery of Saint Francis’ Canticle of the Creatures with humanity’s
mistreatment of the environment: “this sister now cries out to us because of
the harm we have inflicted on her by our irresponsible use of the goods with
which God has endowed her”[6]. Pope Francis argues that
humanity’s careless behaviour towards the environment stems from an attitude
towards nature that pits humanity as the supreme master and nature as a lesser
servant[7]. Moreover, the current
ecological crisis is a reflection of “the violence present in our hearts,
wounded by sin”[8].
The language of the first two paragraphs sets the tone for the proceeding
passages in the encyclical. On the one hand, there is a hopeful portrayal of the
beauty of our “Sister Mother Earth”, but on the other hand lies the dark shadow
of the ecological crisis. This appears to be Pope Francis’ intention: to instill
in us a sense of profound hope and reverence for the environment, but also to
alert us to the deterioration of the natural world.
Before
I engage with Pope Francis’ environmental approach it will be worthwhile to
discuss in further detail the current state of the ecological crisis. As Pope
Francis notes, among the most pressing environmental issues is water[9]. As Nevins states, “in
countries ranging from Saudi Arabia to China, there are severe water shortages.
In upwards of 22 countries in Africa, at least half of the population does not
have access to potable water. World-wide the figure is over one billion, with
almost three billion lacking sanitation services”[10]. The scarcity of clean freshwater
is deeply problematic, and is at the heart of the global water crisis. In
addition to the issue of freshwater, the issue of “water wars” is also quite
alarming. In 1995, Ismail Serageldin famously stated that “if the wars over
this next century were fought over oil, the wars over the next century will be
fought over water”[11]. Serageldin’s prophetic warning
is becoming a reality. Today, there are different types of “water
related-conflict”. One is the conflict between nation-states over the control
of water. In Nevins’ article this is exemplified by the state of Israel’s
exploitation of Palestinian aquifers in the West Bank[12]. According to Nevins,
Vandana Shiva delineates another type of “water related-conflict”, one she
refers to as “paradigm wars”[13]. Paradigm wars refer to
the conflicting interests of different groups regarding the use of natural
resources such as water[14]. For instance, multi-national
corporations are concerned with the commodification of water, whereas many
ecologically minded individuals view water as “a human right” and “something to
be shared and protected by humanity”[15]. One might say that Pope
Francis’ encyclical is caught up in a paradigmatic war between environmental
ethicists, exploitive nation-states, and free-market economies.
Another
major issue discussed in Laudato Si’ is “the loss of biodiversity”. As Pope
Francis argues, the issue of biodiversity is also of the utmost concern[16]. According to May, there
is somewhere between three and five million species of plants and animals on
the earth today[17].
Over this next century, many of these species will face an extinction similar
to “the Big Five mass extinction events in the fossil record”[18]. According to May, this
“Sixth Wave” will be quite different from the previous “Big Five” in the sense
that the Sixth Wave will not be a consequence of the natural world, but rather
the direct result of human activity in the natural world[19]. The demise of the
natural world will have tremendous consequences for humanity, especially the
poor living in developing countries who might lack the technological and practical
capabilities to cope with such radical environmental changes. Indeed, this
assertion is reflective of Pope Francis’ linking of the social and the
environmental. Pope Francis’ argues that “a true ecological approach always
becomes a social approach; it must integrate questions of justice in debates on
the environment, so as to hear both the
cry of the earth and the cry of the poor”[20]. Next, I would like to
discuss the spiritual and ethical framework for Pope Francis’ environmental
approach.
In
Laudato Si’, Pope Francis begins his analysis of the ecological crisis by
drawing on the commentary of previous Popes and clerics. These include Blessed
Pope John Paul VI’s critique of humanity’s environmentally degrading industrial
practices in his apostolic letter, Octogesima
Adveniens[21];
Saint John Paul II’s commentary on the nihilism of utilitarianism in his
encyclical letter, Redemptor Hominis[22];
and Pope Benedict XVI’s structural analysis of environmentally detrimental
economic practices in his Address to the Diplomatic
Corps[23].
Pope Francis also includes Patriarch Bartholomew’s holistic approach to the
ecological crisis, whereby “Bartholomew has drawn attention to the ethical and
spiritual roots of environmental problems, which require that we look for
solutions not only in technology but in a change of humanity”[24]. Pope Francis’ inclusion
of Bartholomew also reflects his vision for a stronger relationship between the
Catholic Church and the Orthodoxy. Nevertheless, it appears that each of Pope
Francis’ contemporaries agree on the need for a solution to environmental
reform that addresses the systemic issues of industrial capitalist economic
structures, while maintaining an ethically and spiritually infused
environmental approach.
Pope
Francis’s environmental approach is also deeply influenced by Saint Francis.
Pope Francis writes, “I believe that Saint Francis is the example par
excellence of care for the vulnerable and of an integral ecology lived out
joyfully and authentically”[25]. Saint Francis is the
patron saint of ecology, and his regard for nature can be vital for any ethical
approach to the environment. According to Mizzoni, during the 1980’s such
thinkers as Paul W. Taylor, James P. Sterba, Harley Cahen, and others,
developed the idea of biocentrism[26]. Biocentrism is a concept
that maintains that “all living things have intrinsic value”[27]. Moreover, “a biocentric
environmental ethic is concerned with how human actions impact individual
living creatures”[28]. Mizzoni’s reading of Canticle of the Creatures reveals a profoundly
biocentric outlook, whereby Saint Francis “recognized intrinsic value in all
living things and believed that humans ought to respect those values”[29]. Mizzoni contends that
Saint Francis’ biocentric point of view is reinforced by various notable Franciscans,
such as Bonaventure and John Duns Scotus, who perceive nature as a
manifestation of God[30]. In their view, nature is
a theophanic expression of the Divine, and according to Mizzoni this “is at the
heart of a Franciscan ecotheology”[31]. One example of this can
be found in Saint Francis of Assisi’s Sermon to the Birds. On one level the
Sermon to the Birds represents Saint Francis’ particular combination of
evangelism with the ascetic qualities of an eremitic lifestyle, but on another
level it signifies Saint Francis’ literal and mystical understanding of
creation[32].
For Saint Francis, the birds are endowed with qualities
that enable them to understand God’s love for them: “my brothers, birds, you
should praise your Creator very much and always love him; he gave you feathers
to clothe you, wings so that you can fly, and whatever else was necessary for
you”[33]. Saint Francis’ Sermon to
the Birds is characteristic of the Franciscan attitude towards the environment.
In a way it also mirrors Pope Francis’ argument for an ecology that combines
the social with the environmental in the sense that creation, just as much as humanity,
is worthy of salvation.
Here
I would like to briefly consider an environmental ethic in the Rule of Saint
Benedict of Nursia. I contend that an environmental ethic developed from the
Rule might compliment (and indeed, contribute to) Pope Francis’ environmental
approach expounded in Laudato Si’.
The Rule of Saint Benedict is a Western classic, and is used in a variety of
monastic settings, from Benedictine and Cistercian monasteries to the various
contemporary New Monastic communities around the world. Saint Benedict frames
the Rule around an early Christian interpretation of scripture. According to
Holzherr, “every interpretation of the Rule must proceed from this biblical and
Christ-marked background”[34]. As one author notes, at
the very center of Saint Benedict’s teaching is the figure of Jesus Christ[35]. If one were to explore
an environmental ethic in the Rule, it would have to be considered in light of
the Christian monastic tradition.
Although
the Rule of Saint Benedict is meant for monastic communities, some of its core principles
can act as ethical standards for the preservation of the environment. In
chapter thirty-one of the Rule, Saint Benedict provides rules for the cellarer of
the monastery, dictating that the cellarer “will regard all utensils and goods
of the monastery as sacred vessels of the alter, aware that nothing is to be
neglected”[36].
If people were to incorporate this rule into their environmental approach, then
they would be obliged to acknowledge the sacrality of the natural world and
treat it as such. Moreover, if individuals or communities were to implement
this sort of ethical consideration into their environmental approach, then they
would likely see a drastic improvement in their surrounding environment, or at
the very least, it would help them to cultivate a sense of reverence and
respect for the natural world. Chapter fifty-three of the Rule also has
profound implications for a Benedictine inspired environmental approach. Here,
Saint Benedict writes on the topic of the reception of strangers in the
monastic community, “all guests who present themselves are to be welcomed as
Christ, for he himself will say: I was a
stranger and you welcomed me (Matt 25:35)”[37]. If people were to apply
this rule to their treatment of the natural world, then they would be compelled
to treat the environment with the utmost care and respect. From this
perspective, Saint Benedict’s Rule has the potential to provide people with
concrete ethical considerations that could be incorporated into an
environmental approach.
Laudato Si’
is both a call to environmental action and a reminder that humanity is
fundamentally dependent on the earth for its existence. Laudato Si’ is also representative of a rich ecologically orientated
tradition in Catholicism. The incorporation of ancient monastic motifs into
modern religious ecological practices suggests that in order for religious
traditions to effectively respond to present conditions, the traditions of the
past must consequentially be reimagined. Laudato
Si’ is but one example of how religious traditions can be reimagined and
reformulated to engage with current circumstances. Other examples can be found
in the neo-Confucian writings of Tu Weiming, and the Vedic philosophies of
Vandana Shiva. Nevertheless, Laudato Si’
is an inspired work that demands us to look carefully at the current
environmental crisis, and our role in it. On the whole, Pope Francis’
encyclical is a candid and courageous effort in the paradigmatic war against
humanity’s destruction of the natural world.
Works
Cited
Assisi, Francis of. “Canticle
of the Creatures.” In Francis of Assisi:
Early Documents, vol. 1, edited
by Regis J. Armstrong et al., 113-114. New York, London, and Manila: New City Press,
1999.
Francis. Laudato Si’. Ottawa, Ontario: Canadian
Conference of Catholic Bishops, 2015.
Holzherr, Georg O.S.B. “Introduction
To The Rule Of Saint Benedict,” American
Benedictine Review
61, no. 1 (2010): 30-62.
May, Robert M. “Why
should we be concerned about loss of biodiversity.” Comptes Rendus –Biologie 334,
no. 5 (2011): 346-350.
Mizzoni, John. “Franciscan
Biocentrism and the Franciscan Tradition.” Ethics
& the Environment
13, no. 1 (2008): 255-263.
Nevins, Joseph. “Resource
conflicts in a new world order.” Geopolitics
9, no. 1 (2004): 255-263.
Sorrell, Roger D. St. Francis Of Assisi And Nature: Tradition
and Innovation in Western Christian Attitudes toward the
Environment. New York and Oxford: Oxford University
Press,
1988.
The
Story of St. Benedict. London: A. R. Mowbray & Co LTD,
1967.
Wall, Esther de. A Life-Giving Way: A Commentary on the Rule
of St Benedict London: GeoffreyChapman,
1995.
[1] Francis, Laudato Si’ (Ottawa, Ontario: Canadian
Conference of Catholic Bishops, 2015), 11.
[2] Ibid., 9.
[3] Ibid., 3.
[4] Ibid.
[5] Francis of
Assisi, Canticle of the Creatures in Francis
of Assisi: Early Documents, vol. 1, ed. Regis J. Armstrong et al. (New
York, London, and Manila: New City Press, 1999), 114.
[6] Francis, 3.
[7] Ibid., 46.
[8] Ibid., 3.
[9] Ibid., 21.
[10]Joseph Nevins, “Resource
conflicts in a new world order,” Geopolitics
9, no. 1 (2004): 259.
[11] Ibid., 258.
[12] Ibid.
[13] Ibid., 259.
[14] Ibid.
[16] Francis, 23.
[17] Robert M. May, “Why
should we be concerned about loss of biodiversity,” Comptes Rendus – Biologie 334, no. 5 (2011): 346.
[18] Ibid., 347.
[19] Ibid.
[20] Francis, 33.
[21] Ibid., 4.
[22] Ibid., 5.
[23] Ibid., 6.
[24] Ibid., 8.
[25] Ibid., 9.
[26] John Mizzoni “Franciscan
Biocentrism and the Franciscan Tradition,” Ethics
& the Environment 13, no. 1 (2008): 125.
[27] Ibid., 121.
[28] Ibid.
[29] Ibid., 122.
[30] Ibid.
[31] Ibid.
[32] Roger D. Sorrell,
St. Francis Of Assisi And Nature:
Tradition and Innovation in Western Christian Attitudes toward the Environment
(New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 59.
[33] Ibid., 60.
[34] Georg Holzherr,
O.S.B. “Introduction To The Rule Of Saint Benedict,” American Benedictine Review 61, no. 1 (2010): 30.
[35] The Story of St. Benedict (London: A. R.
Mowbray & Co LTD, 1967), xxiii.
[36] Esther de Wall, A Life-Giving Way: A
Commentary on the Rule of St Benedict (London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1995),
103.
